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Captured 2026-09-16 · Chromium 147.0.7727.15 · Obsidian Web Clipper 1.7.1, MarkSnip 5.2.0, Markdown Web Clipper 0.9.0

Wikipedia: Periodic table

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table

What usually breaks: Cells that span rows or columns get flattened, shifted or dropped. GFM tables cannot express rowspan, so the only lossless output is HTML.

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[Periodic table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table)

<table><tbody><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)">Group</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal">1</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal">2</a></th><th></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_3_element">3</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_4_element">4</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_5_element">5</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_6_element">6</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_7_element">7</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_8_element">8</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_9_element">9</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_10_element">10</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_11_element">11</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_12_element">12</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_group">13</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_group">14</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pnictogen">15</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen">16</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen">17</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_gas">18</a></th></tr><tr><td></td><td>Hydrogen &<br>alkali metals</td><td>Alkaline earth metals</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Triels</td><td>Tetrels</td><td>Pnicto­gens</td><td>Chal­co­gens</td><td>Halo­gens</td><td>Noble<br>gases</td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)">Period</a><br><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_1_element">1</a></p></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"><p></p><p>Hydro­gen</p><p>1</p><p>H</p><p>1.0080</p><p></p></a></td><td colspan="17"></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"><p></p><p>He­lium</p><p>2</p><p>He</p><p>4.0026</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_2_element">2</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium"><p></p><p>Lith­ium</p><p>3</p><p>Li</p><p>6.94</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium"><p></p><p>Beryl­lium</p><p>4</p><p>Be</p><p>9.0122</p><p></p></a></td><td colspan="11"></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron"><p></p><p>Boron</p><p>5</p><p>B</p><p>10.81</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"><p></p><p>Carbon</p><p>6</p><p>C</p><p>12.011</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen"><p></p><p>Nitro­gen</p><p>7</p><p>N</p><p>14.007</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"><p></p><p>Oxy­gen</p><p>8</p><p>O</p><p>15.999</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine"><p></p><p>Fluor­ine</p><p>9</p><p>F</p><p>18.998</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon"><p></p><p>Neon</p><p>10</p><p>Ne</p><p>20.180</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_3_element">3</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"><p></p><p>So­dium</p><p>11</p><p>Na</p><p>22.990</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"><p></p><p>Magne­sium</p><p>12</p><p>Mg</p><p>24.305</p><p></p></a></td><td colspan="11"></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium"><p></p><p>Alumin­ium</p><p>13</p><p>Al</p><p>26.982</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"><p></p><p>Sili­con</p><p>14</p><p>Si</p><p>28.085</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus"><p></p><p>Phos­phorus</p><p>15</p><p>P</p><p>30.974</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur"><p></p><p>Sulfur</p><p>16</p><p>S</p><p>32.06</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine"><p></p><p>Chlor­ine</p><p>17</p><p>Cl</p><p>35.45</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon"><p></p><p>Argon</p><p>18</p><p>Ar</p><p>39.95</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_4_element">4</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium"><p></p><p>Potas­sium</p><p>19</p><p>K</p><p>39.098</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium"><p></p><p>Cal­cium</p><p>20</p><p>Ca</p><p>40.078</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandium"><p></p><p>Scan­dium</p><p>21</p><p>Sc</p><p>44.956</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium"><p></p><p>Tita­nium</p><p>22</p><p>Ti</p><p>47.867</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium"><p></p><p>Vana­dium</p><p>23</p><p>V</p><p>50.942</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium"><p></p><p>Chrom­ium</p><p>24</p><p>Cr</p><p>51.996</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese"><p></p><p>Manga­nese</p><p>25</p><p>Mn</p><p>54.938</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"><p></p><p>Iron</p><p>26</p><p>Fe</p><p>55.845</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt"><p></p><p>Cobalt</p><p>27</p><p>Co</p><p>58.933</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"><p></p><p>Nickel</p><p>28</p><p>Ni</p><p>58.693</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"><p></p><p>Copper</p><p>29</p><p>Cu</p><p>63.546</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"><p></p><p>Zinc</p><p>30</p><p>Zn</p><p>65.38</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium"><p></p><p>Gallium</p><p>31</p><p>Ga</p><p>69.723</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium"><p></p><p>Germa­nium</p><p>32</p><p>Ge</p><p>72.630</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic"><p></p><p>Arsenic</p><p>33</p><p>As</p><p>74.922</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium"><p></p><p>Sele­nium</p><p>34</p><p>Se</p><p>78.971</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromine"><p></p><p>Bromine</p><p>35</p><p>Br</p><p>79.904</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krypton"><p></p><p>Kryp­ton</p><p>36</p><p>Kr</p><p>83.798</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_5_element">5</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidium"><p></p><p>Rubid­ium</p><p>37</p><p>Rb</p><p>85.468</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strontium"><p></p><p>Stront­ium</p><p>38</p><p>Sr</p><p>87.62</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium"><p></p><p>Yttrium</p><p>39</p><p>Y</p><p>88.906</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium"><p></p><p>Zirco­nium</p><p>40</p><p>Zr</p><p>91.224</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium"><p></p><p>Nio­bium</p><p>41</p><p>Nb</p><p>92.906</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum"><p></p><p>Molyb­denum</p><p>42</p><p>Mo</p><p>95.95</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technetium"><p></p><p>Tech­netium</p><p>43</p><p>Tc</p><p>[97]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthenium"><p></p><p>Ruthe­nium</p><p>44</p><p>Ru</p><p>101.07</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodium"><p></p><p>Rho­dium</p><p>45</p><p>Rh</p><p>102.91</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium"><p></p><p>Pallad­ium</p><p>46</p><p>Pd</p><p>106.42</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver"><p></p><p>Silver</p><p>47</p><p>Ag</p><p>107.87</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium"><p></p><p>Cad­mium</p><p>48</p><p>Cd</p><p>112.41</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium"><p></p><p>Indium</p><p>49</p><p>In</p><p>114.82</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin"><p></p><p>Tin</p><p>50</p><p>Sn</p><p>118.71</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony"><p></p><p>Anti­mony</p><p>51</p><p>Sb</p><p>121.76</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellurium"><p></p><p>Tellur­ium</p><p>52</p><p>Te</p><p>127.60</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine"><p></p><p>Iodine</p><p>53</p><p>I</p><p>126.90</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon"><p></p><p>Xenon</p><p>54</p><p>Xe</p><p>131.29</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_6_element">6</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium"><p></p><p>Cae­sium</p><p>55</p><p>Cs</p><p>132.91</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium"><p></p><p>Ba­rium</p><p>56</p><p>Ba</p><p>137.33</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutetium"><p></p><p>Lute­tium</p><p>71</p><p>Lu</p><p>174.97</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafnium"><p></p><p>Haf­nium</p><p>72</p><p>Hf</p><p>178.49</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum"><p></p><p>Tanta­lum</p><p>73</p><p>Ta</p><p>180.95</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten"><p></p><p>Tung­sten</p><p>74</p><p>W</p><p>183.84</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhenium"><p></p><p>Rhe­nium</p><p>75</p><p>Re</p><p>186.21</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmium"><p></p><p>Os­mium</p><p>76</p><p>Os</p><p>190.23</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridium"><p></p><p>Iridium</p><p>77</p><p>Ir</p><p>192.22</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum"><p></p><p>Plat­inum</p><p>78</p><p>Pt</p><p>195.08</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold"><p></p><p>Gold</p><p>79</p><p>Au</p><p>196.97</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)"><p></p><p>Mer­cury</p><p>80</p><p>Hg</p><p>200.59</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thallium"><p></p><p>Thallium</p><p>81</p><p>Tl</p><p>204.38</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"><p></p><p>Lead</p><p>82</p><p>Pb</p><p>207.2</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth"><p></p><p>Bis­muth</p><p>83</p><p>Bi</p><p>208.98</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium"><p></p><p>Polo­nium</p><p>84</p><p>Po</p><p>[209]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatine"><p></p><p>Asta­tine</p><p>85</p><p>At</p><p>[210]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radon"><p></p><p>Radon</p><p>86</p><p>Rn</p><p>[222]</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_7_element">7</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francium"><p></p><p>Fran­cium</p><p>87</p><p>Fr</p><p>[223]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium"><p></p><p>Ra­dium</p><p>88</p><p>Ra</p><p>[226]</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrencium"><p></p><p>Lawren­cium</p><p>103</p><p>Lr</p><p>[266]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfordium"><p></p><p>Ruther­fordium</p><p>104</p><p>Rf</p><p>[267]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubnium"><p></p><p>Dub­nium</p><p>105</p><p>Db</p><p>[268]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaborgium"><p></p><p>Sea­borgium</p><p>106</p><p>Sg</p><p>[269]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohrium"><p></p><p>Bohr­ium</p><p>107</p><p>Bh</p><p>[270]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassium"><p></p><p>Has­sium</p><p>108</p><p>Hs</p><p>[271]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meitnerium"><p></p><p>Meit­nerium</p><p>109</p><p>Mt</p><p>[278]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darmstadtium"><p></p><p>Darm­stadtium</p><p>110</p><p>Ds</p><p>[281]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roentgenium"><p></p><p>Roent­genium</p><p>111</p><p>Rg</p><p>[282]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicium"><p></p><p>Coper­nicium</p><p>112</p><p>Cn</p><p>[285]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihonium"><p></p><p>Nihon­ium</p><p>113</p><p>Nh</p><p>[286]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flerovium"><p></p><p>Flerov­ium</p><p>114</p><p>Fl</p><p>[289]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscovium"><p></p><p>Moscov­ium</p><p>115</p><p>Mc</p><p>[290]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livermorium"><p></p><p>Liver­morium</p><p>116</p><p>Lv</p><p>[293]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessine"><p></p><p>Tenness­ine</p><p>117</p><p>Ts</p><p>[294]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oganesson"><p></p><p>Oga­nesson</p><p>118</p><p>Og</p><p>[294]</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="20"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanthanum"><p></p><p>Lan­thanum</p><p>57</p><p>La</p><p>138.91</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium"><p></p><p>Cerium</p><p>58</p><p>Ce</p><p>140.12</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praseodymium"><p></p><p>Praseo­dymium</p><p>59</p><p>Pr</p><p>140.91</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium"><p></p><p>Neo­dymium</p><p>60</p><p>Nd</p><p>144.24</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promethium"><p></p><p>Prome­thium</p><p>61</p><p>Pm</p><p>[145]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarium"><p></p><p>Sama­rium</p><p>62</p><p>Sm</p><p>150.36</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europium"><p></p><p>Europ­ium</p><p>63</p><p>Eu</p><p>151.96</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadolinium"><p></p><p>Gadolin­ium</p><p>64</p><p>Gd</p><p>157.25</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terbium"><p></p><p>Ter­bium</p><p>65</p><p>Tb</p><p>158.93</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysprosium"><p></p><p>Dyspro­sium</p><p>66</p><p>Dy</p><p>162.50</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holmium"><p></p><p>Hol­mium</p><p>67</p><p>Ho</p><p>164.93</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbium"><p></p><p>Erbium</p><p>68</p><p>Er</p><p>167.26</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thulium"><p></p><p>Thulium</p><p>69</p><p>Tm</p><p>168.93</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ytterbium"><p></p><p>Ytter­bium</p><p>70</p><p>Yb</p><p>173.05</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3"></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium"><p></p><p>Actin­ium</p><p>89</p><p>Ac</p><p>[227]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium"><p></p><p>Thor­ium</p><p>90</p><p>Th</p><p>232.04</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protactinium"><p></p><p>Protac­tinium</p><p>91</p><p>Pa</p><p>231.04</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium"><p></p><p>Ura­nium</p><p>92</p><p>U</p><p>238.03</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptunium"><p></p><p>Neptu­nium</p><p>93</p><p>Np</p><p>[237]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium"><p></p><p>Pluto­nium</p><p>94</p><p>Pu</p><p>[244]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americium"><p></p><p>Ameri­cium</p><p>95</p><p>Am</p><p>[243]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curium"><p></p><p>Curium</p><p>96</p><p>Cm</p><p>[247]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkelium"><p></p><p>Berkel­ium</p><p>97</p><p>Bk</p><p>[247]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californium"><p></p><p>Califor­nium</p><p>98</p><p>Cf</p><p>[251]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsteinium"><p></p><p>Einstei­nium</p><p>99</p><p>Es</p><p>[252]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermium"><p></p><p>Fer­mium</p><p>100</p><p>Fm</p><p>[257]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelevium"><p></p><p>Mende­levium</p><p>101</p><p>Md</p><p>[258]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelium"><p></p><p>Nobel­ium</p><p>102</p><p>No</p><p>[259]</p><p></p></a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

[Primordial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primordial_nuclide "Primordial nuclide")   [From decay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_radioisotope "Trace radioisotope")   [Synthetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_element "Synthetic element")   **Border** shows natural occurrence of the element

**[Standard atomic weight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight#Published_values "Standard atomic weight")** *A* <sub>r, std</sub> (E) [^23]

- Ca: 40.078 — Abridged value (uncertainty omitted here) [^24]
- Po: \[209\] — [mass number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_number "Mass number") of the most stable isotope

| [s-block](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-block "S-block") | [f-block](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-block "F-block") | [d-block](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-block "D-block") | [p-block](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-block "P-block") |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |

![](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atomic-orbital-clouds_spdf_m0.png)
MarkSnip · raw .md
|   Group   |              1              |           2           |            |           3            |             4             |            5             |           6            |           7           |           8           |           9            |            10            |           11            |           12            |           13           |          14           |           15            |           16            |           17           |          18           |
|-----------|-----------------------------|-----------------------|------------|------------------------|---------------------------|--------------------------|------------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|------------------------|--------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------|-----------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------|-----------------------|
|           | Hydrogen &<br>alkali metals | Alkaline earth metals |            |                        |                           |                          |                        |                       |                       |                        |                          |                         |                         |         Triels         |        Tetrels        |       Pnictogens       |      Chalcogens       |       Halogens        |    Noble<br>gases     |
| Period

1 |     Hydrogen1H1.0080      |                       |            |                        |                           |                          |                        |                       |                       |                        |                          |                         |                         |                        |                       |                         |                         |                        |   Helium2He4.0026   |
|     2     |      Lithium3Li6.94       | Beryllium4Be9.0122  |            |                        |                           |                          |                        |                       |                       |                        |                          |                         |                         |     Boron5B10.81      |    Carbon6C12.011    |   Nitrogen7N14.007    |    Oxygen8O15.999     |   Fluorine9F18.998   |    Neon10Ne20.180    |
|     3     |     Sodium11Na22.990      | Magnesium12Mg24.305 |            |                        |                           |                          |                        |                       |                       |                        |                          |                         |                         | Aluminium13Al26.982  |  Silicon14Si28.085  |  Phosphorus15P30.974  |     Sulfur16S32.06     |  Chlorine17Cl35.45   |    Argon18Ar39.95    |
|     4     |    Potassium19K39.098     |  Calcium20Ca40.078  |            |  Scandium21Sc44.956  |   Titanium22Ti47.867    |   Vanadium23V50.942    |  Chromium24Cr51.996  | Manganese25Mn54.938 |    Iron26Fe55.845    |   Cobalt27Co58.933    |    Nickel28Ni58.693     |    Copper29Cu63.546    |     Zinc30Zn65.38      |   Gallium31Ga69.723   | Germanium32Ge72.630 |   Arsenic33As74.922    |  Selenium34Se78.971   |   Bromine35Br79.904   |  Krypton36Kr83.798  |
|     5     |    Rubidium37Rb85.468     | Strontium38Sr87.62  |            |   Yttrium39Y88.906    |   Zirconium40Zr91.224   |   Niobium41Nb92.906    | Molybdenum42Mo95.95  | Technetium43Tc[97]  | Ruthenium44Ru101.07 |  Rhodium45Rh102.91   |  Palladium46Pd106.42   |    Silver47Ag107.87    |   Cadmium48Cd112.41   |   Indium49In114.82    |    Tin50Sn118.71     |  Antimony51Sb121.76   |  Tellurium52Te127.60  |    Iodine53I126.90    |   Xenon54Xe131.29    |
|     6     |     Caesium55Cs132.91     |  Barium56Ba137.33   | ![1 asterisk](https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg/20px-Asterisks_one.svg.png?utm_source=en.wikipedia.org&utm_campaign=parser&utm_content=thumbnail) |  Lutetium71Lu174.97  |    Hafnium72Hf178.49    |   Tantalum73Ta180.95   |  Tungsten74W183.84   |  Rhenium75Re186.21  |  Osmium76Os190.23   |   Iridium77Ir192.22   |   Platinum78Pt195.08   |     Gold79Au196.97     |   Mercury80Hg200.59   |  Thallium81Tl204.38   |    Lead82Pb207.2     |   Bismuth83Bi208.98   |   Polonium84Po[209]   |  Astatine85At[210]   |    Radon86Rn[222]    |
|     7     |     Francium87Fr[223]     |   Radium88Ra[226]   | ![1 asterisk](https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg/20px-Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg.png?utm_source=en.wikipedia.org&utm_campaign=parser&utm_content=thumbnail) | Lawrencium103Lr[266] | Rutherfordium104Rf[267] |   Dubnium105Db[268]    | Seaborgium106Sg[269] |  Bohrium107Bh[270]  |  Hassium108Hs[271]  | Meitnerium109Mt[278] | Darmstadtium110Ds[281] | Roentgenium111Rg[282] | Copernicium112Cn[285] |  Nihonium113Nh[286]  | Flerovium114Fl[289] |  Moscovium115Mc[290]  | Livermorium116Lv[293] | Tennessine117Ts[294] | Oganesson118Og[294] |
|           |                             |                       |            |                        |                           |                          |                        |                       |                       |                        |                          |                         |                         |                        |                       |                         |                         |                        |                       |
|           |                             |                       | ![1 asterisk](https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg/20px-Asterisks_one.svg.png?utm_source=en.wikipedia.org&utm_campaign=parser&utm_content=thumbnail) | Lanthanum57La138.91  |     Cerium58Ce140.12     | Praseodymium59Pr140.91 | Neodymium60Nd144.24  | Promethium61Pm[145] | Samarium62Sm150.36  |  Europium63Eu151.96  |  Gadolinium64Gd157.25  |   Terbium65Tb158.93   | Dysprosium66Dy162.50  |  Holmium67Ho164.93   |   Erbium68Er167.26   |   Thulium69Tm168.93    |  Ytterbium70Yb173.05  |                        |                       |
|           |                             |                       | ![1 asterisk](https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg/20px-Asterisks_2_%28vertical%29.svg.png?utm_source=en.wikipedia.org&utm_campaign=parser&utm_content=thumbnail) |  Actinium89Ac[227]   |    Thorium90Th232.04    | Protactinium91Pa231.04 |   Uranium92U238.03   | Neptunium93Np[237]  | Plutonium94Pu[244]  |  Americium95Am[243]  |     Curium96Cm[247]     |  Berkelium97Bk[247]   | Californium98Cf[251]  | Einsteinium99Es[252] |  Fermium100Fm[257]  | Mendelevium101Md[258] |  Nobelium102No[259]   |                        |
Markdown Web Clipper · raw .md
[Periodic table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table)

<table><tbody><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Group</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</a></th><th></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</a></th><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</a></th></tr><tr><td></td><td>Hydrogen &amp;<br>alkali metals</td><td>Alkaline earth metals</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Triels</td><td>Tetrels</td><td>Pnicto­gens</td><td>Chal­co­gens</td><td>Halo­gens</td><td>Noble<br>gases</td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Period</a><br><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a></p></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen"><p></p><p>Hydro­gen</p><p>1</p><p>H</p><p>1.0080</p><p></p></a></td><td colspan="17"></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><p></p><p>He­lium</p><p>2</p><p>He</p><p>4.0026</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium"><p></p><p>Lith­ium</p><p>3</p><p>Li</p><p>6.94</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium"><p></p><p>Beryl­lium</p><p>4</p><p>Be</p><p>9.0122</p><p></p></a></td><td colspan="11"></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron" title="Boron"><p></p><p>Boron</p><p>5</p><p>B</p><p>10.81</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon"><p></p><p>Carbon</p><p>6</p><p>C</p><p>12.011</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen"><p></p><p>Nitro­gen</p><p>7</p><p>N</p><p>14.007</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><p></p><p>Oxy­gen</p><p>8</p><p>O</p><p>15.999</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine"><p></p><p>Fluor­ine</p><p>9</p><p>F</p><p>18.998</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon" title="Neon"><p></p><p>Neon</p><p>10</p><p>Ne</p><p>20.180</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium"><p></p><p>So­dium</p><p>11</p><p>Na</p><p>22.990</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium"><p></p><p>Magne­sium</p><p>12</p><p>Mg</p><p>24.305</p><p></p></a></td><td colspan="11"></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium"><p></p><p>Alumin­ium</p><p>13</p><p>Al</p><p>26.982</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon"><p></p><p>Sili­con</p><p>14</p><p>Si</p><p>28.085</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus"><p></p><p>Phos­phorus</p><p>15</p><p>P</p><p>30.974</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur"><p></p><p>Sulfur</p><p>16</p><p>S</p><p>32.06</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine"><p></p><p>Chlor­ine</p><p>17</p><p>Cl</p><p>35.45</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon" title="Argon"><p></p><p>Argon</p><p>18</p><p>Ar</p><p>39.95</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium"><p></p><p>Potas­sium</p><p>19</p><p>K</p><p>39.098</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium"><p></p><p>Cal­cium</p><p>20</p><p>Ca</p><p>40.078</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium"><p></p><p>Scan­dium</p><p>21</p><p>Sc</p><p>44.956</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium"><p></p><p>Tita­nium</p><p>22</p><p>Ti</p><p>47.867</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium"><p></p><p>Vana­dium</p><p>23</p><p>V</p><p>50.942</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium"><p></p><p>Chrom­ium</p><p>24</p><p>Cr</p><p>51.996</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese"><p></p><p>Manga­nese</p><p>25</p><p>Mn</p><p>54.938</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron" title="Iron"><p></p><p>Iron</p><p>26</p><p>Fe</p><p>55.845</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt"><p></p><p>Cobalt</p><p>27</p><p>Co</p><p>58.933</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel"><p></p><p>Nickel</p><p>28</p><p>Ni</p><p>58.693</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper" title="Copper"><p></p><p>Copper</p><p>29</p><p>Cu</p><p>63.546</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc"><p></p><p>Zinc</p><p>30</p><p>Zn</p><p>65.38</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium"><p></p><p>Gallium</p><p>31</p><p>Ga</p><p>69.723</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium"><p></p><p>Germa­nium</p><p>32</p><p>Ge</p><p>72.630</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic"><p></p><p>Arsenic</p><p>33</p><p>As</p><p>74.922</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium"><p></p><p>Sele­nium</p><p>34</p><p>Se</p><p>78.971</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine"><p></p><p>Bromine</p><p>35</p><p>Br</p><p>79.904</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton"><p></p><p>Kryp­ton</p><p>36</p><p>Kr</p><p>83.798</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium"><p></p><p>Rubid­ium</p><p>37</p><p>Rb</p><p>85.468</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium"><p></p><p>Stront­ium</p><p>38</p><p>Sr</p><p>87.62</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium"><p></p><p>Yttrium</p><p>39</p><p>Y</p><p>88.906</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium"><p></p><p>Zirco­nium</p><p>40</p><p>Zr</p><p>91.224</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium"><p></p><p>Nio­bium</p><p>41</p><p>Nb</p><p>92.906</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum"><p></p><p>Molyb­denum</p><p>42</p><p>Mo</p><p>95.95</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium"><p></p><p>Tech­netium</p><p>43</p><p>Tc</p><p>[97]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium"><p></p><p>Ruthe­nium</p><p>44</p><p>Ru</p><p>101.07</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium"><p></p><p>Rho­dium</p><p>45</p><p>Rh</p><p>102.91</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium"><p></p><p>Pallad­ium</p><p>46</p><p>Pd</p><p>106.42</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver" title="Silver"><p></p><p>Silver</p><p>47</p><p>Ag</p><p>107.87</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium"><p></p><p>Cad­mium</p><p>48</p><p>Cd</p><p>112.41</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium" title="Indium"><p></p><p>Indium</p><p>49</p><p>In</p><p>114.82</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin" title="Tin"><p></p><p>Tin</p><p>50</p><p>Sn</p><p>118.71</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony"><p></p><p>Anti­mony</p><p>51</p><p>Sb</p><p>121.76</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium"><p></p><p>Tellur­ium</p><p>52</p><p>Te</p><p>127.60</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine"><p></p><p>Iodine</p><p>53</p><p>I</p><p>126.90</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon"><p></p><p>Xenon</p><p>54</p><p>Xe</p><p>131.29</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium"><p></p><p>Cae­sium</p><p>55</p><p>Cs</p><p>132.91</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium" title="Barium"><p></p><p>Ba­rium</p><p>56</p><p>Ba</p><p>137.33</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium"><p></p><p>Lute­tium</p><p>71</p><p>Lu</p><p>174.97</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium"><p></p><p>Haf­nium</p><p>72</p><p>Hf</p><p>178.49</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum"><p></p><p>Tanta­lum</p><p>73</p><p>Ta</p><p>180.95</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten"><p></p><p>Tung­sten</p><p>74</p><p>W</p><p>183.84</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium"><p></p><p>Rhe­nium</p><p>75</p><p>Re</p><p>186.21</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium"><p></p><p>Os­mium</p><p>76</p><p>Os</p><p>190.23</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium"><p></p><p>Iridium</p><p>77</p><p>Ir</p><p>192.22</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum"><p></p><p>Plat­inum</p><p>78</p><p>Pt</p><p>195.08</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold" title="Gold"><p></p><p>Gold</p><p>79</p><p>Au</p><p>196.97</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)"><p></p><p>Mer­cury</p><p>80</p><p>Hg</p><p>200.59</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium"><p></p><p>Thallium</p><p>81</p><p>Tl</p><p>204.38</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead" title="Lead"><p></p><p>Lead</p><p>82</p><p>Pb</p><p>207.2</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth"><p></p><p>Bis­muth</p><p>83</p><p>Bi</p><p>208.98</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium"><p></p><p>Polo­nium</p><p>84</p><p>Po</p><p>[209]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine"><p></p><p>Asta­tine</p><p>85</p><p>At</p><p>[210]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radon" title="Radon"><p></p><p>Radon</p><p>86</p><p>Rn</p><p>[222]</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a></th><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francium" title="Francium"><p></p><p>Fran­cium</p><p>87</p><p>Fr</p><p>[223]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium" title="Radium"><p></p><p>Ra­dium</p><p>88</p><p>Ra</p><p>[226]</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium"><p></p><p>Lawren­cium</p><p>103</p><p>Lr</p><p>[266]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium"><p></p><p>Ruther­fordium</p><p>104</p><p>Rf</p><p>[267]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium"><p></p><p>Dub­nium</p><p>105</p><p>Db</p><p>[268]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium"><p></p><p>Sea­borgium</p><p>106</p><p>Sg</p><p>[269]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium"><p></p><p>Bohr­ium</p><p>107</p><p>Bh</p><p>[270]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium"><p></p><p>Has­sium</p><p>108</p><p>Hs</p><p>[271]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium"><p></p><p>Meit­nerium</p><p>109</p><p>Mt</p><p>[278]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium"><p></p><p>Darm­stadtium</p><p>110</p><p>Ds</p><p>[281]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium"><p></p><p>Roent­genium</p><p>111</p><p>Rg</p><p>[282]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium"><p></p><p>Coper­nicium</p><p>112</p><p>Cn</p><p>[285]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium"><p></p><p>Nihon­ium</p><p>113</p><p>Nh</p><p>[286]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium"><p></p><p>Flerov­ium</p><p>114</p><p>Fl</p><p>[289]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium"><p></p><p>Moscov­ium</p><p>115</p><p>Mc</p><p>[290]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium"><p></p><p>Liver­morium</p><p>116</p><p>Lv</p><p>[293]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine"><p></p><p>Tenness­ine</p><p>117</p><p>Ts</p><p>[294]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson"><p></p><p>Oga­nesson</p><p>118</p><p>Og</p><p>[294]</p><p></p></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="20"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum"><p></p><p>Lan­thanum</p><p>57</p><p>La</p><p>138.91</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium"><p></p><p>Cerium</p><p>58</p><p>Ce</p><p>140.12</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium"><p></p><p>Praseo­dymium</p><p>59</p><p>Pr</p><p>140.91</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium"><p></p><p>Neo­dymium</p><p>60</p><p>Nd</p><p>144.24</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium"><p></p><p>Prome­thium</p><p>61</p><p>Pm</p><p>[145]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium"><p></p><p>Sama­rium</p><p>62</p><p>Sm</p><p>150.36</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europium" title="Europium"><p></p><p>Europ­ium</p><p>63</p><p>Eu</p><p>151.96</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium"><p></p><p>Gadolin­ium</p><p>64</p><p>Gd</p><p>157.25</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium"><p></p><p>Ter­bium</p><p>65</p><p>Tb</p><p>158.93</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium"><p></p><p>Dyspro­sium</p><p>66</p><p>Dy</p><p>162.50</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium"><p></p><p>Hol­mium</p><p>67</p><p>Ho</p><p>164.93</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium"><p></p><p>Erbium</p><p>68</p><p>Er</p><p>167.26</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium"><p></p><p>Thulium</p><p>69</p><p>Tm</p><p>168.93</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium"><p></p><p>Ytter­bium</p><p>70</p><p>Yb</p><p>173.05</p><p></p></a></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3"></td><td></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium"><p></p><p>Actin­ium</p><p>89</p><p>Ac</p><p>[227]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium"><p></p><p>Thor­ium</p><p>90</p><p>Th</p><p>232.04</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium"><p></p><p>Protac­tinium</p><p>91</p><p>Pa</p><p>231.04</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium"><p></p><p>Ura­nium</p><p>92</p><p>U</p><p>238.03</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium"><p></p><p>Neptu­nium</p><p>93</p><p>Np</p><p>[237]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium"><p></p><p>Pluto­nium</p><p>94</p><p>Pu</p><p>[244]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americium" title="Americium"><p></p><p>Ameri­cium</p><p>95</p><p>Am</p><p>[243]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curium" title="Curium"><p></p><p>Curium</p><p>96</p><p>Cm</p><p>[247]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium"><p></p><p>Berkel­ium</p><p>97</p><p>Bk</p><p>[247]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californium" title="Californium"><p></p><p>Califor­nium</p><p>98</p><p>Cf</p><p>[251]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium"><p></p><p>Einstei­nium</p><p>99</p><p>Es</p><p>[252]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium"><p></p><p>Fer­mium</p><p>100</p><p>Fm</p><p>[257]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium"><p></p><p>Mende­levium</p><p>101</p><p>Md</p><p>[258]</p><p></p></a></td><td><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium"><p></p><p>Nobel­ium</p><p>102</p><p>No</p><p>[259]</p><p></p></a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

[Primordial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primordial_nuclide "Primordial nuclide")   [From decay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_radioisotope "Trace radioisotope")   [Synthetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_element "Synthetic element")   **Border** shows natural occurrence of the element

**[Standard atomic weight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight#Published_values "Standard atomic weight")** _A_ <sub>r, std</sub>(E)[^23]

- Ca: 40.078 — Abridged value (uncertainty omitted here)[^24]
- Po: \[209\] — [mass number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_number "Mass number") of the most stable isotope

|     |     |     |     |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [s-block](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-block "S-block") | [f-block](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-block "F-block") | [d-block](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-block "D-block") | [p-block](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-block "P-block") |

Verdict: No clipper produces a correct GFM periodic table, because GFM has no rowspan. Obsidian Web Clipper and Markdown Web Clipper keep the spanning grid as an intact HTML table, which Obsidian renders. MarkSnip forces it into GFM: rows break across lines, cell text runs together ("Hydrogen1H1.0080"), and MediaWiki attributes leak into the prose.

arXiv HTML: Attention Is All You Need

https://arxiv.org/html/1706.03762v7

What usually breaks: Equations come out as Unicode soup, get dropped, or leak MathML.

CheckObsidian Web ClipperMarkSnipMarkdown Web Clipper
Display equations as $$ blocks on their own lines✓✗✓
No equation duplicated as Unicode glued to LaTeX✓✗✓
Inline math as $…$ or \(…\)✓✓✓
The √d_k scaling survives as LaTeX✓✓✓
No raw <math> HTML✗✓✗
Obsidian Web Clipper · raw .md
#### 3.2.1 Scaled Dot-Product Attention

We call our particular attention "Scaled Dot-Product Attention" (Figure 2). The input consists of queries and keys of dimension $d_{k}$, and values of dimension $d_{v}$. We compute the dot products of the query with all keys, divide each by $\sqrt{d_{k}}$, and apply a softmax function to obtain the weights on the values.

In practice, we compute the attention function on a set of queries simultaneously, packed together into a matrix $Q$. The keys and values are also packed together into matrices $K$ and $V$. We compute the matrix of outputs as:

$$
\mathrm{Attention}(Q,K,V)=\mathrm{softmax}(\frac{QK^{T}}{\sqrt{d_{k}}})V
$$

The two most commonly used attention functions are additive attention [^2], and dot-product (multiplicative) attention. Dot-product attention is identical to our algorithm, except for the scaling factor of $\frac{1}{\sqrt{d_{k}}}$. Additive attention computes the compatibility function using a feed-forward network with a single hidden layer. While the two are similar in theoretical complexity, dot-product attention is much faster and more space-efficient in practice, since it can be implemented using highly optimized matrix multiplication code.

While for small values of $d_{k}$ the two mechanisms perform similarly, additive attention outperforms dot product attention without scaling for larger values of $d_{k}$ [^3]. We suspect that for large values of $d_{k}$, the dot products grow large in magnitude, pushing the softmax function into regions where it has extremely small gradients <sup>1</sup>. To counteract this effect, we scale the dot products by $\frac{1}{\sqrt{d_{k}}}$.

#### 3.2.2 Multi-Head Attention
MarkSnip · raw .md
#### 3.2.1 Scaled Dot-Product Attention

We call our particular attention "Scaled Dot-Product Attention" (Figure [2](https://arxiv.org/html/1706.03762v7#S3.F2 "Figure 2 ‣ 3.2.2 Multi-Head Attention ‣ 3.2 Attention ‣ 3 Model Architecture ‣ Attention Is All You Need")). The input consists of queries and keys of dimension $d_{k}$, and values of dimension $d_{v}$. We compute the dot products of the query with all keys, divide each by $\sqrt{d_{k}}$, and apply a softmax function to obtain the weights on the values.

In practice, we compute the attention function on a set of queries simultaneously, packed together into a matrix $Q$. The keys and values are also packed together into matrices $K$ and $V$. We compute the matrix of outputs as:

|  | Attention⁡(Q,K,V)=softmax⁡(QKTdk)V\mathrm{Attention}(Q,K,V)=\mathrm{softmax}(\frac{QK^{T}}{\sqrt{d_{k}}})V |  | (1) |
|-----|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----|-----|

The two most commonly used attention functions are additive attention \[[2](https://arxiv.org/html/1706.03762v7#bib.bib2)\], and dot-product (multiplicative) attention. Dot-product attention is identical to our algorithm, except for the scaling factor of $\frac{1}{\sqrt{d_{k}}}$. Additive attention computes the compatibility function using a feed-forward network with a single hidden layer. While the two are similar in theoretical complexity, dot-product attention is much faster and more space-efficient in practice, since it can be implemented using highly optimized matrix multiplication code.

While for small values of $d_{k}$ the two mechanisms perform similarly, additive attention outperforms dot product attention without scaling for larger values of $d_{k}$ \[[3](https://arxiv.org/html/1706.03762v7#bib.bib3)\]. We suspect that for large values of $d_{k}$, the dot products grow large in magnitude, pushing the softmax function into regions where it has extremely small gradients <sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup> 1 To illustrate why the dot products get large, assume that the components of $q$ and $k$ are independent random variables with mean $0$ and variance $1$. Then their dot product, $q\cdot k=\sum_{i=1}^{d_{k}}q_{i}k_{i}$, has mean $0$ and variance $d_{k}$.. To counteract this effect, we scale the dot products by $\frac{1}{\sqrt{d_{k}}}$.

#### 3.2.2 Multi-Head Attention
Markdown Web Clipper · raw .md
#### 3.2.1 Scaled Dot-Product Attention

We call our particular attention "Scaled Dot-Product Attention" (Figure 2). The input consists of queries and keys of dimension $d_{k}$, and values of dimension $d_{v}$. We compute the dot products of the query with all keys, divide each by $\sqrt{d_{k}}$, and apply a softmax function to obtain the weights on the values.

In practice, we compute the attention function on a set of queries simultaneously, packed together into a matrix $Q$. The keys and values are also packed together into matrices $K$ and $V$. We compute the matrix of outputs as:

$$
\mathrm{Attention}(Q,K,V)=\mathrm{softmax}(\frac{QK^{T}}{\sqrt{d_{k}}})V
$$

The two most commonly used attention functions are additive attention[^2-4], and dot-product (multiplicative) attention. Dot-product attention is identical to our algorithm, except for the scaling factor of $\frac{1}{\sqrt{d_{k}}}$. Additive attention computes the compatibility function using a feed-forward network with a single hidden layer. While the two are similar in theoretical complexity, dot-product attention is much faster and more space-efficient in practice, since it can be implemented using highly optimized matrix multiplication code.

While for small values of $d_{k}$ the two mechanisms perform similarly, additive attention outperforms dot product attention without scaling for larger values of $d_{k}$ [^3]. We suspect that for large values of $d_{k}$, the dot products grow large in magnitude, pushing the softmax function into regions where it has extremely small gradients<sup>1</sup>. To counteract this effect, we scale the dot products by $\frac{1}{\sqrt{d_{k}}}$.

#### 3.2.2 Multi-Head Attention

Verdict: All three keep inline math as $…$ with \sqrt{d_{k}} intact. Obsidian Web Clipper and Markdown Web Clipper put each display equation in a $$ block; MarkSnip turns every display equation into a one-row table whose cell is the Unicode rendering glued to the LaTeX. The results tables leave <math> inside HTML in the two Defuddle-based clippers; Markdown Web Clipper's copy carries the LaTeX in a data-latex attribute, so it is recoverable.

GitHub README: kepano/defuddle

https://github.com/kepano/defuddle

What usually breaks: Code fences lose their language tag, or indentation is reflowed.

CheckObsidian Web ClipperMarkSnipMarkdown Web Clipper
A fence carries a language hint✗✓✗
An import statement survives verbatim✓✓✓
No raw <pre> HTML✓✓✓
Obsidian Web Clipper · raw .md

```
npm install defuddle
```

For Node.js usage, install a DOM implementation:

```
npm install linkedom
```

Or use JSDOM:

```
npm install jsdom
MarkSnip · raw .md

```shell
npm install defuddle
```

For Node.js usage, install a DOM implementation:

```shell
npm install linkedom
```

Or use JSDOM:

```shell
npm install jsdom
Markdown Web Clipper · raw .md

```
npm install defuddle
```

For Node.js usage, install a DOM implementation:

```
npm install linkedom
```

Or use JSDOM:

```
npm install jsdom

Verdict: MarkSnip wins this one: it keeps ```js and ```shell on every fence. Obsidian Web Clipper and Markdown Web Clipper emit bare fences, so syntax highlighting is lost. GitHub marks the language on a wrapper div, not on the code element, and neither Defuddle-based clipper reads it. Markdown Web Clipper fixed this on 2026-09-16; the row gets recaptured when that release is in the Chrome Web Store.

ChatGPT shared conversation

What usually breaks: Who said what is lost, and code inside answers is mangled.

CheckObsidian Web ClipperMarkSnipMarkdown Web Clipper
Speaker turns are labelled✓✗✓
The first message of the thread is present, not just the visible tail✗✗✓
A code fence exists✓✓✓
Display equations as $$ blocks✗✗✓
No raw <div> HTML✓✓✓
Obsidian Web Clipper · raw .md
Assuming **Hypothesis** and the EMA implementation from above, this tests the core invariants rather than a handful of fixed examples:

```python
import math

from hypothesis import given, strategies as st

from smoothing import exponential_moving_average

finite_floats = st.floats(
    min_value=-1e6,
    max_value=1e6,
    allow_nan=False,
    allow_infinity=False,
)
MarkSnip · raw .md
Our SQL used:

```sql
1. We conflated "7 observations" with "7 days"SQLROWS BETWEEN 6 PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW
```

and called it a 7-day moving average.

That's only true if there is **exactly one row per day with no gaps**.

If dates are missing, this is a 7-observation average, not a 7-calendar-day average. We did catch this later, but the original API/design should have made the distinction explicit from the beginning.

A better API would distinguish:

```ini
Markdown Web Clipper · raw .md
## ChatGPT

```python
def moving_average(values: list[float], window: int) -> list[float]:
    if window <= 0:
        raise ValueError("window must be positive")
    if window > len(values):
        return []

    return [
        sum(values[i:i + window]) / window
        for i in range(len(values) - window + 1)
    ]
```

Verdict: A 24-turn thread with code and math. Markdown Web Clipper captured all 12 user and 12 assistant turns with ## User / ## ChatGPT labels, fenced code and $$ math blocks. Obsidian Web Clipper captured the last 5 messages only, labelled, with the display math dropped. MarkSnip captured the final answer alone, with no speaker labels. ChatGPT's share page renders the conversation lazily, and only one clipper pulls the whole transcript.

gwern.net: The Scaling Hypothesis

https://gwern.net/scaling-hypothesis

What usually breaks: Footnotes get inlined, dropped, or left as dangling links.

CheckObsidian Web ClipperMarkSnipMarkdown Web Clipper
Footnote references as [^n]✓✗✓
Footnote definitions as [^n]:✓✗✓
No footnotes left as #fn links✓✗✓
Obsidian Web Clipper · raw .md
## Meta-Learning

Learning to learn. In May 2020, OA released—to remarkably little interest from researchers, no blog post, no media blitz, and little public discussion beyond the snidely dismissive—the long-awaited followup to [GPT-2⁠](https://openai.com/index/better-language-models/), one model to rule them all: a 117× larger 175b-parameter model with far more powerful language generation, which lets it solve a wide variety of problems from arithmetic⁠ [^1] to English translation to unscrambling anagrams to SAT analogies—purely from being prompted with text examples, without any specialized training or finetuning whatsoever, merely next-word prediction training on a big Internet text corpus. This implies GPT-3’s attention mechanisms serve as [“fast weights”⁠](https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.06258#deepmind) that have “learned to learn” by training on sufficiently varied data⁠ [^2], forcing it to do more than just learn ordinary textual relationships. Like OpenAI’s [Jukebox⁠](https://openai.com/research/jukebox) just weeks ago (itself a remarkable demonstration of scaling in synthesizing *raw audio* music complete with remarkably realistic voices/instruments), the announcement of GPT-3 appears to have sunk almost without a trace, so I will go into more depth than usual.

## Flexing GPT

> ‘“They are absolutely reasonable. I think that is their distinguishing characteristic. Yes, Mr. Erskine, an absolutely reasonable people. I assure you there is no nonsense about the Americans.” “How dreadful!” cried Lord Henry. “I can stand brute force, but brute reason is quite unbearable. There is something unfair about its use. It is hitting below the intellect.”’
> 
> *The Picture of Dorian Gray*, Oscar Wilde

“Attacks only get better.” 2 years ago, [GPT-1⁠](https://openai.com/research/language-unsupervised) was interestingly useful pretraining and adorable with its “sentiment neuron”. 1 year ago, GPT-2 was impressive with its excellent text generation & finetuning capabilities. This year, GPT-3 is scary because it’s a magnificently obsolete architecture from early 2018 (used mostly for software engineering convenience as the infrastructure has been debugged), which is small & shallow compared to what’s possible⁠ [^3] ⁠ [^4], with a simple uniform architecture⁠ [^5] trained in the dumbest way possible (unidirectional prediction of next text token) on a single impoverished modality (random Internet HTML text dumps⁠ [^6]) on tiny data (fits on a laptop), sampled in a dumb way⁠ [^7], its benchmark performance sabotaged by bad prompts & data tokenization problems (especially arithmetic & commonsense reasoning), and yet, the first version already manifests crazy runtime meta-learning—and the scaling curves *still* are not bending! The samples are also better than ever, whether it’s GPT-3 inventing new penis jokes⁠ [^8] or writing (mostly working) [JavaScript tutorials](https://justpaste.it/7eovk#javascript) about rotating arrays.

It’s odd that this qualitative leap appears to be largely missed by the standard NLP benchmarks. Nothing in the raw metrics reported on, say, Penn Tree Bank or LAMBADA or WinoGrande would lead you to expect all of this hilarious and creative output; the meta-learning results might, but only if you already thought meta-learning was important. This suggests to me that a useful post-GPT-3 contribution would be figuring out how to benchmark these sorts of flexible text generation capabilities (possibly something along the lines of Chollet’s image-based [Abstraction and Reasoning Corpus (ARC)⁠](https://arxiv.org/abs/1911.01547#google)).

## Baking The Cake
MarkSnip · raw .md
On GPT-3: meta-learning, scaling, implications, and deep theory. The scaling hypothesis: neural nets absorb data & compute, generalizing and becoming more Bayesian as problems get harder, manifesting new abilities even at trivial-by-global-standards-scale. The deep learning revolution has begun as foretold.

> GPT-3, announced by OpenAI in May 2020, is the largest neural network ever trained, by over an order of magnitude. Trained on Internet text data, it is the successor to GPT-2, which had surprised everyone by its natural language understanding & generation ability. To the surprise of most (including myself), this vast increase in size did not run into diminishing or negative returns, as many expected, but the benefits of scale continued to happen as forecasted by OpenAI. These benefits were not merely learning more facts & text than GPT-2, but qualitatively distinct & even more surprising in showing [_⁠meta-learning_⁠](https://gwern.net/scaling-hypothesis#meta-learning): while GPT-2 learned how to do common natural language tasks like text summarization, GPT-3 instead learned how to follow directions and learn new tasks from a few examples. (As a result, GPT-3 outputs & interaction are more fascinating & human-like than GPT-2.)
> 
> While the immediate applications of GPT-3, like my poetry or humor writings, are nice, the short-term implications of GPT-3 are much more important.
> 
> First, while GPT-3 is expensive by conventional DL standards, it is cheap by scientific/commercial/military/government budget standards, and the results indicate that models could be made much larger. Second, models can also be made much more powerful, as GPT is an old approach known to be flawed in both minor & major ways, and far from an ‘ideal’ Transformer. Third, GPT-3’s capabilities come from learning on raw (unsupervised) data; that has long been one of the weakest areas of DL, holding back progress in other areas like reinforcement learning or robotics. Models like GPT-3 suggest that large unsupervised models will be vital components of future DL systems, as they can be ‘plugged into’ systems to immediately provide understanding of the world, humans, natural language, and reasoning.
> 
> The meta-learning has a longer-term implication: it is a demonstration of the [_⁠blessings of scale_⁠](https://gwern.net/scaling-hypothesis#blessings-of-scale), where problems with simple neural networks vanish, and they become more powerful, more generalizable, more human-like when simply made very large & trained on very large datasets with very large compute—even though those properties are believed to require complicated architectures & fancy algorithms (and this perceived need drives much research). Unsupervised models benefit from this, as training on large corpuses like Internet-scale text present a myriad of difficult problems to solve; this is enough to drive meta-learning despite GPT not being designed for meta-learning in any way. (This family of phenomena is perhaps driven by neural networks functioning as [ensembles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensemble_learning) of many sub-networks with them all averaging out to an Occam’s razor, which for small data & models, learn superficial or memorized parts of the data, but can be forced into true learning by making the problems hard & rich enough; as [⁠meta-learners learn amortized Bayesian inference⁠](https://gwern.net/backstop#deep-bayes), they build in informative priors when trained over many tasks, and become dramatically more sample-efficient and better at generalization.)
> 
> The blessings of scale in turn support a radical theory: an old AI paradigm held by a few pioneers in connectionism (early artificial neural network research) and by more recent deep learning researchers, the [_⁠scaling hypothesis_⁠](https://gwern.net/scaling-hypothesis#scaling-hypothesis). The scaling hypothesis regards the blessings of scale as the secret of AGI: intelligence is ‘just’ simple neural units & learning algorithms applied to diverse experiences at a (currently) unreachable scale. As increasing computational resources permit running such algorithms at the necessary scale, the neural networks will get ever more intelligent.
> 
> When? Estimates of Moore’s law-like progress curves decades ago by pioneers like Hans Moravec indicated that it would take until the 2010s for the sufficiently-cheap compute for tiny insect-level prototype systems to be available, and the 2020s for the first sub-human systems to become feasible, and these forecasts are holding up. (Despite this vindication, the scaling hypothesis is so unpopular an idea, and difficult to prove in advance rather than as a _fait accompli_, that while the GPT-3 results finally drew some public notice after OpenAI enabled limited public access & people could experiment with it live, it is unlikely that many entities will modify their research philosophies, much less kick off an ‘arms race’.)
> 
> More concerningly, GPT-3’s scaling curves, unpredicted meta-learning, and success on various anti-AI challenges suggests that in terms of futurology, AI researchers’ forecasts are an emperor sans garments: they have no coherent model of how AI progress happens or why GPT-3 was possible or what specific achievements should cause alarm, where intelligence comes from, and do not learn from any falsified predictions. Their primary concerns appear to be supporting the status quo, placating public concern, and remaining respectable. As such, their comments on AI risk are meaningless: they would make the same public statements if the scaling hypothesis were true or not.
Markdown Web Clipper · raw .md
## Meta-Learning

Learning to learn. In May 2020, OA released—to remarkably little interest from researchers, no blog post, no media blitz, and little public discussion beyond the snidely dismissive—the long-awaited followup to [GPT-2⁠](https://openai.com/index/better-language-models/), one model to rule them all: a 117× larger 175b-parameter model with far more powerful language generation, which lets it solve a wide variety of problems from arithmetic⁠ [^1] to English translation to unscrambling anagrams to SAT analogies—purely from being prompted with text examples, without any specialized training or finetuning whatsoever, merely next-word prediction training on a big Internet text corpus. This implies GPT-3’s attention mechanisms serve as [“fast weights”⁠](https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.06258#deepmind) that have “learned to learn” by training on sufficiently varied data⁠ [^2], forcing it to do more than just learn ordinary textual relationships. Like OpenAI’s [Jukebox⁠](https://openai.com/research/jukebox) just weeks ago (itself a remarkable demonstration of scaling in synthesizing _raw audio_ music complete with remarkably realistic voices/instruments), the announcement of GPT-3 appears to have sunk almost without a trace, so I will go into more depth than usual.

## Flexing GPT

> ‘“They are absolutely reasonable. I think that is their distinguishing characteristic. Yes, Mr. Erskine, an absolutely reasonable people. I assure you there is no nonsense about the Americans.” “How dreadful!” cried Lord Henry. “I can stand brute force, but brute reason is quite unbearable. There is something unfair about its use. It is hitting below the intellect.”’
> 
> _The Picture of Dorian Gray_, Oscar Wilde

“Attacks only get better.” 2 years ago, [GPT-1⁠](https://openai.com/research/language-unsupervised) was interestingly useful pretraining and adorable with its “sentiment neuron”. 1 year ago, GPT-2 was impressive with its excellent text generation & finetuning capabilities. This year, GPT-3 is scary because it’s a magnificently obsolete architecture from early 2018 (used mostly for software engineering convenience as the infrastructure has been debugged), which is small & shallow compared to what’s possible⁠ [^3] ⁠ [^4], with a simple uniform architecture⁠ [^5] trained in the dumbest way possible (unidirectional prediction of next text token) on a single impoverished modality (random Internet HTML text dumps⁠ [^6]) on tiny data (fits on a laptop), sampled in a dumb way⁠ [^7], its benchmark performance sabotaged by bad prompts & data tokenization problems (especially arithmetic & commonsense reasoning), and yet, the first version already manifests crazy runtime meta-learning—and the scaling curves _still_ are not bending! The samples are also better than ever, whether it’s GPT-3 inventing new penis jokes⁠ [^8] or writing (mostly working) [JavaScript tutorials](https://justpaste.it/7eovk#javascript) about rotating arrays.

It’s odd that this qualitative leap appears to be largely missed by the standard NLP benchmarks. Nothing in the raw metrics reported on, say, Penn Tree Bank or LAMBADA or WinoGrande would lead you to expect all of this hilarious and creative output; the meta-learning results might, but only if you already thought meta-learning was important. This suggests to me that a useful post-GPT-3 contribution would be figuring out how to benchmark these sorts of flexible text generation capabilities (possibly something along the lines of Chollet’s image-based [Abstraction and Reasoning Corpus (ARC)⁠](https://arxiv.org/abs/1911.01547#google)).

## Baking The Cake

Verdict: Obsidian Web Clipper and Markdown Web Clipper produce real footnotes: [^n] references in the text and [^n]: definitions at the end. MarkSnip leaves each footnote as a superscript link back to gwern.net, so the note text is not in the file.

Method

Each page was opened in a fresh Chromium profile with exactly one extension loaded, at default settings, and clipped to the clipboard. Obsidian Web Clipper was driven through its popup's "Copy to clipboard"; MarkSnip and Markdown Web Clipper through their keyboard shortcuts. The capture script is in the repository under scripts/compare-capture/; rerun it and the page regenerates. Versions and the capture date are printed at the top of the results.

Pages were chosen for a known failure mode each, not for flattering results. Suggest a page that breaks this clipper and it gets added: support@markdownwebclipper.com.